Humanity’s exploration of pigments began with the instinctive imitation of natural colors. In the Lascaux Caves in France and the Altamira Caves in Spain, archaeologists discovered murals dating back approximately 30,000 years. The color sources of these primitive works of art were extremely simple: red and yellow came from hematite (ochre), black from charcoal or raptor droppings, and white from chalk with a calcium carbonate texture. At that time, humans had not yet mastered complex processing techniques; they only converted natural minerals and organic substances into “pigments” that could adhere to cave walls by grinding and mixing them with animal fats or plant juices.

The choice of pigments during this period was highly dependent on local resources: tribes living by the sea would fire shells to make white pigments, while inland tribes relied on clay and ores. Although the range of colors was limited (mainly red, black, white, and yellow), and the pigments had poor adhesion and were prone to fading, these primitive pigments pioneered humanity’s use of color to record life and express beliefs, becoming an important symbol of the birth of civilization.

II. Ancient Civilizations: The Binding of Pigments to Power and Trade (3000 BCE – 5th Century CE)

With the rise of civilizations such as ancient Egypt, Babylon, and Greece, the use of pigments expanded from cave murals to architectural decorations, religious artifacts, and royal items. Their “scarcity” gradually became linked to power and status. The ancient Egyptians were the masters of pigment craftsmanship in ancient times. They not only mastered the purification technology of mineral pigments but also invented early methods for artificially synthesizing pigments. The famous “Egyptian Blue” (CaCuSi₂O₆) was the first artificially synthesized pigment in human history, created by mixing quartz, limestone, copper ore, and plant ash and firing the mixture at high temperatures. This bright blue color appeared frequently on pyramid murals and pharaoh masks. Due to the complexity of its production process, it became an exclusive color for the royal family and the theocracy.

During the same period, China also developed a unique system of pigment development. On the bronze artifacts of the Shang and Zhou dynasties, red and blue pigments were derived from the natural minerals “cinnabar” (mercuric sulfide) and “azurite” (blue copper ore). In the Warring States period, the silk painting Figure Driving a Dragon already used mineral pigments such as cinnabar, malachite green, and orpiment, mixed with animal glue as a binder to improve the stability of the pigments. The Silk Road, which spanned Eurasia, became an important channel for pigment trade. Lapis lazuli (the raw material for making ultramarine pigment) from Afghanistan, indigo from India, and ochre from Europe were circulated to different civilizations via caravans, promoting the integration of color cultures.

III. The Middle Ages and the Renaissance: The “Nobleization” of Pigments and Technological Breakthroughs (5th Century – 17th Century)

In medieval Europe, religious painting became the core scene for the application of pigments, and the symbolic significance of colors was pushed to the extreme: gold represented divinity, blue symbolized holiness, and red implied martyrdom. However, pigments at this time were still mainly natural minerals, and their acquisition was extremely difficult. Ultramarine pigment required mining lapis lazuli from distant Afghanistan, followed by repeated grinding and washing to obtain the final product. Its price once exceeded that of gold, so only murals in top-tier churches or paintings commissioned by the royal family dared to use it in large quantities. This “scarcity of colors” also gave medieval paintings the characteristics of a limited color palette and strong contrast.

It was not until the Renaissance that pigment technology ushered in its first “revolution.” Artists and chemists began to collaborate to explore new methods for artificially synthesizing pigments. In the 15th century, the Dutch painter Jan van Eyck improved the formula of oil paints, replacing the traditional egg tempera with linseed oil as a binder. This slowed down the drying speed of the pigments, made the colors more vivid, and allowed for layering. This innovation gave birth to masterpieces with rich details such as The Arnolfini Portrait. In the 16th century, the Venetian painter Titian was the first to extensively use “lead-tin yellow” (an artificially synthesized yellow pigment). Its bright hue injected unique vitality into the Venetian school of painting.

During this period, the “class attribute” of pigments gradually weakened. With the popularization of synthetic technology, more artists were able to use rich colors to express emotions and reality, promoting the artistic shift of the Renaissance from “divinity” to “humanity.”

IV. The Industrial Revolution to the Present: The “Popularization” and Diversification of Pigments (18th Century – 21st Century)

The 18th-century Industrial Revolution completely transformed the production mode of pigments—shifting from manual production to mechanized mass production. Pigments finally stepped out of the “noble studios” and became consumer goods accessible to ordinary people. In 1775, the British chemist William Perkin accidentally discovered “mauveine,” the first artificially synthesized organic pigment, while attempting to synthesize quinine. This bright, stable, and low-cost purple color quickly became popular in Europe and even triggered a “purple fashion” craze, marking the arrival of the age of organic pigments.

From the 19th to the 20th century, pigment technology entered a period of rapid development. In 1826, the successful synthesis of “cobalt blue” solved the problem of the high cost of natural ultramarine. In 1874, “cadmium yellow” and “cadmium red” were developed. Their high saturation and lightfastness made them favorites of Impressionist painters—Claude Monet used cadmium yellow to capture the texture of water under different light conditions in his Water Lilies series. In the mid-20th century, synthetic polymer pigments (such as acrylic pigments) were invented. Their water-resistant, fast-drying, and portable characteristics enabled the rise of new art forms such as street graffiti and modern installation art.

Entering the 21st century, the development of pigments has focused more on “environmental friendliness” and “functionality”: formaldehyde-free children’s pigments, degradable wall coatings, high-temperature-resistant industrial pigments, nanoscale pigments used in electronic screens… Today, pigments have long transcended the scope of “painting tools” and penetrated into various fields such as architecture, textiles, electronics, and aerospace, becoming an important part of modern industry and technology.

V. Conclusion: Human Wisdom Behind Colors

From hematite powder to nanoscale pigments, from manual grinding to mechanized mass production, the history of pigment development is a history of humanity’s continuous exploration of nature and breakthroughs in technological boundaries. The birth of each pigment carries the technological level, cultural aesthetics, and social needs of a specific era—it has recorded the majesty of theocracy, witnessed the prosperity of trade, promoted the innovation of art, and integrated into the daily lives of ordinary people.

Today, when we apply colors on a canvas, choose paint for a wall, or browse images on a mobile phone screen, we rarely think that behind these seemingly ordinary colors lies the accumulation of human civilization’s wisdom over thousands of years. With the continuous advancement of technology, pigments in the future will continue to evolve, creating more diverse, environmentally friendly, and imaginative color possibilities for the human world.